Resources

Below is a collection of resources containing information about caring for deer and forests.

Measuring Survival and Response to Hunting Activity of Female White-Tailed Deer Brochure

Monitoring survival rates and harvest vulnerability of female white-tailed deerare two fundamental components of any deer management program. However, few data exist on survival rates andrelative harvest vulnerability of female white-tailed deer in Pennsylvania. This brochure is a cooperative project of: Pennsylvania Game Commission, Pennsylvania State University, and U.S. Geological Survey.

Interference by Weeds and Deer with Allegheny Hardwood Reproduction

Deer browsing and interference from forest weeds, particularly hayscented fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula (Michx.) Moore), New York fern (Thelypteris noveboracensls L.), and short husk grass (Brachyelvtrum erectum Schreb.), influence the establishment of Allegheny hardwood reproduction. We determined the independent interference by deer and weeds after a seed cut and a removal cut in a two-cut sheiterwood sequence. Weeds, particularly the ferns, caused significant interference with germination, survival, and growth of desirable species following both cuttings. Deer browsing had no direct effect on desirable species because they did not grow enough to emerge from the herbaceous cover. Deer browsing did affect growth of Rubus, yellow and black birch (Betula alleghaniensis Britt, and Betula lenta L.), and pin cherry (Prunus pensylvanlca L.)that grew above the herbaceous cover. Browsing of Rubus may be a serious problem in some stands because substantial reduction in fern and grass coverage occurred as the Rubus developed. This article was written by Stephen B. Horsley and David A. Marquis for the United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.

Impacts of White-Tailed Deer on Forest Regeneration in Northwestern Pennsylvania

Browsing by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is a major cause of regeneration failure in Allegheny hardwood forests of northwestern Pennsylvania. I examined the impact of deer at 5 different densities (0, 10, 20, 40, and 80 deer/259 ha) on tree seedlings, woody shrubs, and herbaceous plants in large enclosures over 5 years. I examined 3 silvicultural treatments (clearcut, thinning, and uncut) at each density. After 5 years, tree seedlings in the clearcuts at the lowest deer densities were nearly twice as tall as those at the highest deer densities. Browsing at high deer densities also reduced the diversity of tree seedlings, resulting in nearly pure black cherry (Prunus serotina) regeneration. Fern cover increased with increasing deer densities and blackberry cover (Rubus spp.) decreased. I suggest deer populations should be maintained at: <18 deer/259 ha to ensure tree regeneration and desired tree species composition. This article was written by J. Wilde for the U.S. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.

Flying the North American Adironack whitetail on intruments: A multi-parameter modeling approach to ecosystem-based wildlife managment

We compare ecosystem-based wildlife management to instrument flight of aircraft. Airplanes cannot be controlled without visual ground reference, or if this is impossible to a cluster of flight instruments. Instrument pilots are trained to develop arhythmic scan of the cluster to monitor and correct flight path and attitude. The untrained tendency is to fixate on a single gauge. Then, the aircraft deviates from its desired attitude and trajectory, and control may be lost. Fixation is like single-factor management wherein variables like habitat quality, recruitment, predator control, or harvest rates are singled out for adjustment without considering the others. This article was written by Richard W. Sage, Bernard C. Patten, and Paulette A. Salmon for the Journal for Nature Conservation.

Escaping herbivory - refuge effects on the morphology and shoot demography of the clonal forest herb Maianthemum canadense

ROONETY, T.P. (Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706) Escaping herbivory: refuge effects on the morphology and shoot demography of the clonal forest herb Maianthemum canadense. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 124:280-285. 1997.-High levels of herbivory can reduce plant growth, reproduction, and ultimately, abundance. I compared the morphology and shoot demography of Maianthemum canadense on large boulder tops, which were inaccessible to white-tailed deer, and on small boulder tops, which are browsed. Vegetative shoots tended to be larger on boulder tops, but there were no differences between large and small boulder tops in internodal rhizome lengths or branching frequencies. Shoot densities, frequency of occurrence of flowering shoots, and frequency of flowering shoots within quadrats were higher on large boulder tops than small boulder tops. Such differences were not observed in Oxalis acetosella, a species which is not browsed. Similar patterns have been reported for other forest herbs throughout the eastern United States from locations where browsing pressure is great. Refugia may allow browse-sensitive plants to persist, albeit at lower densities, in overbrowsed habitats. This article was written by Thomas P. Rooney for the Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society.

Effects of White-Tailed Deer Herbivory on Forest Gap Dynamics in a Wildlife Preserve, Pennsylvania, USA

Many forests perpetuate themselves through a cycle of overstory tree mortality, canopy gap formation, new tree establishment and growth, and eventual gap closure. At high population densities, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimmerman) could inhibit gap closure by consuming small trees. We compared forest gap dynamics in a private wildlife preserve, where deer population management is prohibited, and an ecologically-similar forest, where hunting is permitted. Counts of deer fecal pellet groups were 6-100 times greater in the wildlife preserve, indicating more intense deer herbivory. Overstory tree species composition, stand basal area, and the density of trees 2 20 cm dbh (diameter at breast height, 130 cm) were similar. However, the density of trees 30 cm tall-4.9 cm dbh was 36 times less at the wildlife preserve, or 240 times less if we only considered the tree taxa capable of joining the forest overstory. Canopy gap fraction was 41% greater at the preserve even though the density of large, dead gapmaker trees was 37% less, and these gapmakers were more decomposed, indicating that the canopy gaps were older. The prevalence of antler rubs, forest floor vegetation, or vines did not explain the differences in the densities of small trees or the gap cycles at the two sites. The findings suggest that gap closure has been inhibited at the wildlife preserve and raise the possibility that deforestation is occurring there gradually, from the bottom up. This article was written by Brian S. Pedersen and Angela M. Wallis for the Natural Areas Journal.

Effects of Herbivory and Its Timing Across Populations of Trillium Grandiflorum

The goal of this study was to identify the degree to which the frequency and timing of herbivory by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and subsequent plant response varied across 12 populations of the perennial herb Trillium grandiflorum. Effects of natural and experimental herbivory on the stage and size of reproductive plants were measured. Both the frequency and timing of herbivory varied across T. grandiflorum populations. Reproductive plants were more likely to regress to nonreproductive stages in the next growing season when (1) reproductive plants were consumed by deer (vs. intact reproductive plants); (2) reproductive plants were consumed early in the growing season (vs. reproductive plants consumed late in the growing season); (3) reproductive plants were smaller in size. Clipped plants that remained reproductive were smaller in the following season than unclippcd controls. Plant size was positively correlated with the number of ovules, suggesting that reductions in the growth rate of reproductive plants diminish their future reproductive success. Populations with high levels of natural herbivory had a greater proportion of reproductive plants that regressed to nonreproductive stages, probably because reproductive plants in these populations were smaller in size. However, the plant response to herbivory was similar across populations. This article was written by Tiffany M. Knight for the American Journal of Botany.

Effects of White-Tailed Deer on Songbirds Within Managed Forests in Pennsylvania

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations have been maintained at high densities in Pennsylvania for several decades with unknown effects on songbirds and their habitats. I evaluated effects of white-tailed deer density on songbird species richness, abundance, and habitat. I simulated 4 deer densities (3.7, 7.9, 14.9, and 24.9 deer/km2) within individually fenced enclosures on 4 65-ha forest areas in northwestern Pennsylvania. Within all enclosures, 10% of the area was clear-cut and 30% was thinned. Enclosures were subjected to 10 years of deer browsing, 1980-90, at the 4 simulated densities. I conducted bird counts in1991. Varying deer density had no effect (P > 0.1) on ground- or upper canopy-nesting songbirds or their habitat, but species richness of intermediate canopy-nesting songbirds declined 27% (P 0.01) and abundance declined 37% (P = 0.002) between lowest and highest deer densities. I did not observe the eastern wood pewee (Contopns virens), indigo bunting (Passerine cyanea), least flycatcher (Empido-na:r_ minimus), yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus), or cerulean warbler (Dendroica cernlea) at densities >7.9 deer/km2and the eastern phoebe (Sayornis phoebe), and American robin (Turdus rnigratorius) were not observed at24.9 deer/km2. Threshold deer density for effect on habitat and songbirds within managed (100-yr rotation)forests was between 7.9 and 14.9 deer/km2. This article was written by J Wildl for the U.S. Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.

Devices to Protect Seedlings From Deer Browsing

Studies on the Allegheny Plateau of Pennsylvania have shown that several types of wire or plastic tubes can be erected around tree seedlings to protect them from deer browsing. The two most promising devices are a 4- to 6-inch diameter plastic tube with small mesh and a 12-inch diameter tube constructed of chicken wire. Both types need to be at least 5 feet tall to provide adequate protection in areas of heavy browsing pressure. The plastic protectors are more expensive than those made of wire, but are somewhat quicker to fabricate, and they offer the added advantage of protection against rodents. This articles was written by David A. Marquis for the Northeast Forest Experiment Station (Forest Service Research Note NE-243).

Deer Research Update Winter 2005

An important part of any wildlife management program is monitoring and evaluating. Over the last few years , several projects have been initiated to collect baseline information on deer populations , monitor changes in deer populations caused by changes in hunting seasons , and evaluate management tools . These projects are a joint effort between the Game Commission and the Pennsylvania Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit at Penn State University. Results of many of these studies have been recognized for their contribution to the science of wildlife management through publication in scientific journals. This article was written for the Pennsylvania Game Commission.

Management Workbook for White-Tailed Deer

The Deer Management Workbook, -- “the Redbook,” as it is often called – was designed to be a working document for wildlife managers, researchers, administrators, and the interested public. The first version of the “Redbook” was written and distributed in 1987. Several updates were made in subsequent years. Much has changed in our deer management program since 1987. This new version of the Deer Management Workbook provides an update and more accurately describes our deer management program as it exists in 2001. In it is described the philosophy, laws, policies, procedures, and assumptions we use in our deer management program. New issues in deer management are ever emerging and the looseleaf format enables additions and deletions to the workbook as our deer management program changes and improves. The information in the Workbook is designed to provide a foundation of information needed to understand, conduct, and participate in the Wisconsin Deer Management program. Wisconsin’s deer management program is often viewed as a model of deer management in the country. A major component of our deer management program is harvest management. The state is divided into areas that are ecologically similar called deer management units. Overwinter goals are set for each deer management unit with input from the public and approval by the Natural Resources Board (a group of citizens selected by the Governor to review DNR policies). These goals are then used by wildlife managers to develop harvest recommendations to keep the deer population within the unit at the goal. This workbook was developed by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.

Deer Density Estimation/Browse Impact Survey Data Sheet

This data sheet will help you to estimate deer density and calculate browse impact for a given area. Browse impact is calculated for the following species: Striped Maple, Beech, Red Maple, Black Cherry, Sugar Maple and Hemlock/Oak. Developed by Tim Pierson and Dave deCalesta for the Kinzua Quality Deer Cooperative in northwestern Pennsylvania.

Deer and Diversity in Allegheny Hardwood Forests: Managing an Unlikely Challenge

High white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) density and interfering vegetation were identified as factors affecting the regeneration of hardwood forests in the Allegheny National Forest and surrounding forests in northwestern Pennsylvania. Research was designed by Forest Service scientists to quantify these effects. A high degree of interest in the impact of these effects on the diversity of forest resources led to additional research. Scientists, natural resource managers, and private timber interests used the research findings on the impacts of deer and interfering vegetation on regeneration and diversity to produce newsletters, tours, symposia, and to make presentations to groups of legislators, environmentalists and other influential segments of the public. This combined research–educational effort has been associated with the enactment of hunting regulations designed to reduce deer density and for registration and continued use of herbicides to control interfering vegetation. Both actions have the potential to increase the diversity of songbirds and woody and herbaceous vegetation in forest lands. The challenge is to sustain directed management of deer density and interfering vegetation until these factors are controlled to the point where they no longer negatively impact the diversity of forest resources. This article was written by David S. deCalesta for the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service.

Deer, Acid Rain, and Other Factors: Results From Long-Term Research

Recently, many Pennsylvanians have become interested in the relative importance of deer and acid rain as causes for regeneration challenges in Pennsylvania forests. The subject is complex and we are grateful for an opportu-nity to share our research results. The United States Forest Service Research Laboratory in Warren and Kane, PA has conducted long-term research on forest regeneration in Pennsylvania for 70+ years, and our research does cast considerable light on these questions. It is our normal practice to release information on our studies after the results have passed through the rigors of peer review, and distinguish between peer-reviewed results and preliminary results in what follows. Basically, the Penn State press release raises four questions: Will reducing deer abundance improve regeneration outcomes in Pennsylvania forests? Will broad-scale application of1.5 tons per acre of dolomitic lime improve regeneration outcomes in Pennsylvania forests? Is "acid rain" a problem for forests in Pennsylvania? Has regeneration research been too narrowly focused on deer effects? This article was written by Susan Stout for the USDA Forest Service, Forest Sciences Laboratory and is the sixth in a series.

Checklist of Woody & Herbaceous Deer Food Plants of Louisiana

Excerpt: "The white-tailed deer is dependent upon the Plant Kingdom for the food it needs for growth and development. Management of this food resource, which is one aspect of habitat management, is an important part of any wildlife program. It is especially critical for proper management of this large herbivore, since deer have the ability to impact the habitat on which they live. The adverse impact that deer can exert on a habitat will disrupt the entire ecological balance of the habitat. In other words deer can create problems for all the other species of wildlife depending on that habitat. If habitat is to be managed for deer, the deer manager must first have a good understanding of the plants that deer utilize for food." This checklist was developed by David Moreland for the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries.

Predictors of White-Tailed Deer Grazing Intensity in Fragmented Deciduous Forests

White-tailed deer (Oclocoileus virginianus) can cause major changes in the composition and structure of forest communities by browsing shrubs and tree seedlings and grazing understory forbs. Such effects have become an increasingly pervasive management concern in protected natural areas and parks where conservation of native plant communities is a primary objective. The magnitude of these effects can vary widely according to variations in local deer numbers and availability of alternate food sources. We used measurements from 11 maple–basswood forest fragments in southcentral Minnesota to examine the predictability of deer grazing intensity on understory forbs based on local winter deer density, composition of the landscape surrounding each forest fragment, and characteristics of forb populations within the forest. In early summer grazing intensity on 6 palatable forb species at most sites was inversely correlated with the availability of alfalfa within a 1.5-km radius of the stand (r2 = 0.66); winter deer density and forb flowering rate within the stand were additional important predictors of grazing intensity. Later in the growing season, most variability in the intensity of grazing among forest fragments could be explained either by the availability of row crops, alfalfa,and fields within a. 1.5-km radius of the stand (r2 = 0.75) or by a combination of winter deer density and forb abundance within the stand (r2 = 0.75). Results show that parks and preserves with low densities of palatable plant species in the forest understory may be especially susceptible to effects of deer grazing. Changes in landscape composition (e.g., increased row-cropping or conversion of land to residential developments) should be an important consideration in the management of deer densities in areas designed to protect native forest communities. This article was written by David J. Augustine and Peter A. Jordan.

Effect of Deer Browsing on Timber Production in Allegheny Hardwood Forests of Northwestern Pennsylvania

Regeneration surveys in fenced and unfenced portions of thirteen 9- to 22-year-old clearcuts on the Allegheny Plateau of Northwestern Pennsylvania show that deer browsing has resulted in (a) inadequate stocking of tree species, (b) delay in establishment, and (c) less valuable species composition. Ninety-two percent of the fenced areas, but only 38 percent of the unfenced areas, are considered satisfactorily stocked. The value of timber production lost as a result of browsing during the regeneration period is estimated to average $1,075 per acre. This article was written by David A. Marquis, United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service (Research Paper NE-475).

Drive-Line Census for Deer Within Fenced Enclosures

Methodology is presented for conducting drive-line counts to obtain absolute numbers of deer 'within fairly small (<560 ha) areas. Planning and layout of the drive and the organization of persons who make up the drive-line teams are discussed. Procedures for maintaining proper spacing and alignment of drivers are described. On a drive of a 5.7-km2 estate enclosed by a 2.5-m-tail deer fence in northwest Pennsylvania, numbers of deer (78) were within one of an estimate derived from a standard deer pellet-group court. The key elements of a successful drive are organization and communication before and during the drive. This article was written by David S. deCalesta and Gary W. Witmer for the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.

Deer and Forest Resources: Not Just a Pennsylvania Problem

The impact of deer on forest resources is a big issue in Pennsylvania today, but we are not the only ones facing this problem. Other states, notably Michigan, Virginia, NewYork, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Connecticut are noticing significant increases in deer damage to forest resources. Maryland, Delaware, Iowa, Ohio, and West Virginia are reporting rising deer herds, and expect problems in the future. At the Forestry Sciences Laboratory in Warren, Pa., we've received calls from foresters in New Jersey, Ohio, Virginia, and West Virginia who want to know what they can do to alleviate deer pressure on forest communities. This article was written by Barbara J. McGuinness of the Northeastern Experiment Station for the PAEE Journal 1996.

Deer and Ecosystem Management

Within the last decade, managers of public and private forestlands have contemplated managing forest resources in ways that address the desired (future) condition (outcomes) of these resources (Society of American Foresters 1993), which include all plant and animal species, non-commercial as well as commercial. Such management necessitates dealing with ecosystems and dovetails with an emerging management concept identified as"ecosystem management" (Society of American Foresters 1993; Grum-bine 1994; Salwasser 1994). This article was written by David S. deCalesta, included in the book The Science of Overabundance: Deer Ecology and Population Managment.

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