Resources

Below is a collection of resources containing information about caring for deer and forests.

Relative deer density and sustainability: a conceptual framework for integrating deer managment with ecosystem managment

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations and harvests of white-tailed deer have increased dramatically in the eastern United States on public and private lands during the 20th century (Porter 1992, Kroll 1994). Recognition of the impacts of deer on ecosystem components (deCalesta 1997) and controversy over management of deer populations (Porter 1992, Witmer and deCalesta 1992) have also increased. In the past, deer density was managed to provide an optimal and sustainable number of deer for harvest. However, with the advent of ecosystem management and its emphasis on management of all resources (Salwasser 1992, 1994; Christenson et al. 1996; Goodland and Daly 1996) we were required to abandon the single-species approach to deer management. We propose a framework for extending the single-species concept of carrying capacity to a more inclusive model for integrating management of deer with that of other ecosystem components. This article was written by David S. deCalesta and Susan L. Stout for the Wildlife Society Bulletin 1997.

Deer and Forest Health

Scientists have studied deer and their impacts on forests for most of this century. They conducted much of this research before the phrase "forest health" took on the importance that it has today. The definition of a healthy forest -- one in which all the components are there, and are ensured of renewal over time -- did not exist until recently, either. Research shows that when deer densities are high, deer eliminate important components from forests or make it very difficult for humans to protector restore these components. This article was written by Susan L. Stout for Pennslyvania Forests, Spring 1998.

A Conflict Between Forest Renewal and White-tailed Deer: A Silviculturalist's Perspective on Values

This conference is focused on "The Impact of Deer on the Biodiversity and Economy of Pennsylvania. "Each speaker on this panel has been asked to speak about the interaction between our values and the ecological impacts of white tailed deer from a specific perspective. My perspective is that of a silviculturist. Silvicuiturists study how trees and forests grow, so that we can help maintain and establish or re-establish forests that sustain the benefits that humans value. We can use silviculture to open a vista, to muffle distant noises, to create habitat for one or more wildlife species, or to produce wood products, for example. This article was written by Susan L. Stout, U.S. Forest Service Forestry Science Laboratory, for The Impact of Deer on the Biodiversity and Economy of the State of Pennsylvania Conference held September 24-25, 1999.

Deer Carrying Capacity: Too Few, Too Many, and for Whom?

Management of white-tailed deer is one of Pennsylvania's most controversial issues. This gentle, attractive mammal is avaluable and widely appreciated natural resource, yet the impact of the size of the current deer population on forest plant and animal communities and humans is significant. This article was written by Barbara McGuinness for The Northern Logger and Timber Processor, October 1997.

White-Tailed Deer Alter Diversity of Songbirds and Thier Habitat in Northwestern Pennsylvania

White-tailed Deer were nearly extirpated from Pennsylvania at the turn of the century. Since then, protection, reintroduction, and habitat improvement resulted in the deer population increasing from presettlement densities of 10 to 15 deer per square mile to more than 50 deer per square mile in the four-county area that surrounds the Allegheny NationalForest (Fig. 1). As a result, deer populations have significantly altered the vegetation of Allegheny hardwood forests for nearly 80 years (Hough 1965; Whitney1984; Tilghman 1989). Currently, average population density across the Allegheny Plateau is 30 deer per square mile. This article was written by Barbara McGuinness and David deCalesta for Pennsylvania Birds, 1996.

Controlling Deer Damage in Wisconsin

Deer and the damage they cause are part of a larger problem of wildlife: a public resource on private land. Wildlife cannot simply be eliminated when it conflicts with a landowner's use of land. Neither can landowners bear the entire burden of support for these public resources. The solution lies somewhere between these extremes. Wisconsin must manage its deer herd to satisfy several interest groups. Most landowners enjoy having some deer on their property, despite real or potential damage. This fact, coupled with the economic and aesthetic values of deer, suggests that a combination of herd control through hunting and a conscientious and reasonable effort at damage control will serve everyone's needs. This article was written by Scott Craven for Woodland Managment, Summer 2006.

Can Small Deer Enclosures Work?

Understanding the impact of deer density levels on forest regeneration is critical for determining acceptable deer populations. Deer are a natural component of the ecosystem, however, a variety of human impacts on the landscape may have resulted in deer numbers exceeding their natural densities in some areas. Researchers, resource managers, and the general public have noted negative impacts from high deer densities on tree regeneration, herbaceous plants, aquatic systems, and vertebrate and invertebrate species. These impacts can result in severe ecological degradation and economic losses, as has been observed in forestry regeneration projects in many parts of the country, including Wisconsin. This article was written by Karl Martin for Woodland Managment, Summer 2006.

Some have a hard time seeing the trees from the deer

Oh deer, what can the matter be? Wisconsin legislative committees heard from several natural resource specialists that high deer populations are the matter. Deer are taking a toll on Wisconsin's forests. The testimony was presented April 11 at the State Capitol in Madison when the Assembly Committee on Forestry, chaired by Representative Don Friske (R-Merrill), and the Assembly Natural Resources Committee, chaired by Representative Scott Gunderson (R-Union Grove), held a special public hearing to learn about the forest impacts of deer in Wisconsin. This article was written by Tim Eisele for Woodland Managment, Summer 2006.

Trouble in the Understory

Imagine returning to a favorite woodland you knew as a child but had not visited for decades. You recall a hardwood stand in southern Wisconsin where the ground was carpeted with a dense array of native wildflowers. Now, you find instead dense patches of exotic buckthorn shrubs, some ferns, a carpet of garlic mustard in places, and scattered jack-in-the-pulpits. You see only an occasional mid-sized tree and a dearth of seedlings. This article was written by Don Walker and Sarah Wright for Woodland Managment, Summer 2006.

[Re]Generation Gaps: Impacts of White-Tailed Deer on Forest Resources

Jared Diamond, an internationally renown conservation biologist and regular contributor to Natural History magazine, compares visiting a forest with high deer densities to"visiting an apparently thriving country and suddenly realizing that it was inhabited by old people, and that most of the infants and children had died." The Allegheny hardwood forest of Northwestern Pennsylvania is such a "country" and scientists at the Forestry Sciences Lab in Warren, Pa. are studying to find out why, and how we can revitalize the "youth" in this "country" called the Allegheny hardwood forest. This article was written by Barbara J. McGuinness of the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station for the PAEE Journal 1996.

Deer Browsing in Northern Hardwoods after Clearcutting

There is a close relationship between management of forest land for timber and management for game. This is especially evident in the use of cutting practices that yield both timber and deer browse. The relationship reaches almost symbiotic proportions in northern hardwoods after clearcutting for stand regeneration. Usually an abundance of woody vegetation — both commercial and non-commercial species —is produced; and much of this can be utilized by deer with no undesirable effect on the composition and growth of the future stand. Under light to moderate browsing, seedlings of commercial species may actually undergo less competition because deer prefer the faster-growing sprouts. And stands of seedling origin are generally thought to be of higher quality than those of sprout origin. This article was written by James S. Jordan for the U.S. Forest Service (Research Paper NE-57).

Managing White-tailed Deer in Forest Habitat From an Ecosystem Perspective

Deer play a role in ecosystems, particularly forests, in various ways including: (1) Herbivory or predation on the plants they use as food (2) Altering the physical habitat used by other animal species, plants, and other organisms in the ecosystem (3) Altering plant species composition, richness (diversity), forest structure (see box on page 34), ecological processes, and ecosystem function (4) Competing with other animals that use the same food resources (5) As prey, providing food for large predators Consequently, deer management has implications that go far beyond recreational hunting.

The Ecosystem Management Project

The Ecosystem Management Project, in care of the Community Foundation for the Alleghenies, is an education initiative created to increase public awareness regarding the values of managing white-tailed deer from an ecosystem/habitat-based perspective and to supply the public with information about this issue. It is our goal to assist state agencies, landowners, hunters and communities towards that end and to publicize opportunities to be involved. We welcome your input and involvement.

Windows of opportunity white-tailed deer and the dynamics of northern hardwood forests of the northeastern US

Herbivory, lighting regimes, and site conditions are among the most important determinants of forest regeneration success, but these are affected by a host of other factors such as weather, predation, human exploitation, pathogens, wind and fire. We draw together >50 years of research on the Huntington Wildlife Forest in the central Adirondack Mountains of New York to explore regeneration of northern hardwo0ds.A series of studies each of which focused on a single factor failed to identify the cause of regeneration failure. However, integration of these studies led to broader understanding of the process of forest stand development and identified at least three interacting factors: lighting regime, competing vegetation and selective browsing by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus).The diverse 100-200 year-old hardwood stands present today proba- bly reflect regeneration during periods of low deer density (<2.0 deer/km2) and significant forest disturbance. If this hypothe- sis is correct, forest managers can mimic these "natural windows of opportunity" through manipulation of a few sensitive variables in the system. Further, these manipulations can be conducted on a relatively small geographic scale. Control of deer densities on a scale of 500 ha and understory American beech (Fagusgrandifo1ia)on a scale of < 100 ha in conjunction with an even-aged regeneration system consistently resulted in successful establishment of desirable hardwood regeneration. This article was written by Richard W. Sage, Jr., William F. Porter, and H. Brian Underwood for the Journal for Nature Conservation.

White-Tailed Deer Impact on the Vegetation Dynamics of a Northern Hardwood Forest

Considerable controversy has arisen over the management of white-tailed deer in eastern landscapes where there is evidence of damage to forest vegetation, crops,and wildlife habitat attributable to deer. We examined the impact of 4, 8, 15, and 25 deer/km2 on herbaceous layer abundance and tree seedling density, height development, species composition, and diversity for 10 yr in a repeated-measures randomized-complete-block experiment at four replicate cherry—maple forest sites in northwestern Pennsylvania, USA. At each 65-ha site, deer were placed in 13- or 26-ha fenced enclosures in which the landscape composition and forage production of a forest managed on a 100-yr rotation was simulated by clear-cutting 10% of each area and thinning 30%. Vegetation was sampled 0-1, 3, 5,and 10 yr after treatment (YAT). We analyzed vegetative treatment responses separately in each silvicultural treatment. This article was written by Stephen B. Horsley, Susan L. Stout, and David S. DeCalesta for the USDA Forest Service Northeastern Research Station.

Waiting for Answers on the 2004-05 Deer Seasons

Deer and deer hunting are very important to the Commonwealth and so, too, are the thoughts and experiences of Pennsylvania's deer hunters. The Pennsylvania Game Commission will continue its commitment to responsible management of the state's invaluable whitetail resource. The agency's deer program strives to provide: healthy habitat for all wildlife, retain a thriving and balanced deer population and maintain the state's rich deer hunting tradition. It's never an easy job to balance these goals, but with the help of hunters and landowners, the agency strives to do its best at every turn. This article was written for the Pennsylvania Game Commission.

Turtle Woods Wildflower Sanctuary

Four years have passed since we built our 3-acre deer exclosure, and already the changes are noticeable. Tree seedlings have sprouted and grown; new wildflower species have appeared; and the deer browse line has slowly softened and filled in. We chose to put the exclosure in a mature deciduous forest, so the changes are not as dramatic as they would be if the area had been cut and then fenced. Still, month by month, season after season, I chart the changes in what my husband Bruce named the Turtle Woods Wildflower Sanctuary. This article was written by Marcia Bonta in the April 2005 Pennsylvania Game News.

The Effects of Deer Exclosures on the Recovery of Vegetation in Failed Clearcuts of the Allegheny Plateau

In 6- to 10-year-old clearcuts that had failed to regenerate naturally, fencing was erected to protect seedlings from deer browsing. The fencing allowed the gradual recovery of the forest cover: Small seedlings that otherwise would have been browsed continued to grow, and ground cover species such as Rubus, which reduced ferns and grasses that sometimes interfere with seedling development, were reestablished. Fencing alone is likely to promote satisfactory restoration of forest cover only in failed clearcuts that contain adequate numbers of seedlings initially—few new seedlings became established after fencing. This article was written by David A. Marquis and Ted J. Grisez for the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station (Forest Service Research Note NE-270).

The Combined Effects of Browsing and Disturbance on Forest Succession: A Case Study of White-tailed Deer Impacts in Virginia

The magnitude and frequency of environmental disturbances, such as hurricanes, wildfires, and ice storms, combined with deer browsing can influence the speed and direction of forest succession. We assessed the synergistic effects of deer browsing and disturbance on the canopy composition of the Appalachian Mountains of Virginia using an eight-year deer exclosure study and an individual-based gap model. The empirical data indicated that white ash (Fraxinus americana) and blackberry (Rubus) increased in the exclosure sites (p<0.05), and suggested that red oak (Quercus rubra), red maple (Acer rubrum), and black cherry (Prunus serotina) also increased within the exclosure sites (p<0.10). None of the 11 species analyzed increased in the control sites. These results were incorporated into an individual-based gap model (ZELIG) along with simulated disturbances to predict forest succession. When disturbances were simulated in combination with deer browsing the speed of forest succession increased relative to simulations without disturbance. Depending upon the disturbance regime, a large impact of deer on sapling establishment did not always translate into a similar impact on the resulting canopy composition. The importance of deer browsing versus competitive interactions amongst saplings is a function of disturbance. This article was written by Paul C. Cross, William McShea, and Thomas M. Smith.

Strategies For Protecting The Landscape From Deer Browsing

Utilize one of the numerous lists of recommended plants that show resistance to browsing. This will serve as a starting point for selecting trees and shrubs for your landscape. Visit your neighbors and question them as to what deer select for food in their landscapes. This will assist you in narrowing the list of plants that will most likely be the best selections for your area. Plan on protecting vulnerable plants, or plants that do not appear on any list or have no "track record" in your area. This article was written by Brad Roeller for the Ohio Nursery and Landscape Association.

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